Notably, among all surgical specialties, cardiac surgery—particularly procedures utilizing cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB)—is associated with an exceptionally high risk of perioperative neurological complications. The incidence of cognitive decline following cardiac surgery is significantly higher than that of non-cardiac procedures, largely driven by unique intraoperative stressors such as CPB-induced non-physiological perfusion, cerebral microembolization, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and profound systemic inflammatory responses. Consequently, patients undergoing cardiac surgery not only represent a highly vulnerable population for dNCR but also provide an optimal clinical model for investigating the acute dynamics of the aforementioned biomarkers of neuronal damage and neuroinflammation

Notably, among all surgical specialties, cardiac surgery—particularly procedures utilizing cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB)—is associated with an exceptionally high risk of perioperative neurological complications. The incidence of cognitive decline following cardiac surgery is significantly higher than that of non-cardiac procedures, largely driven by unique intraoperative stressors such as CPB-induced non-physiological perfusion, cerebral microembolization, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and profound systemic inflammatory responses. Consequently, patients undergoing cardiac surgery not only represent a highly vulnerable population for dNCR but also provide an optimal clinical model for investigating the acute dynamics of the aforementioned biomarkers of neuronal damage and neuroinflammation